Giáo án môn Giáo dục công dân lớp 6 - Chủ điểm tháng 1+2: Mừng đảng mừng xuân

. There is thus a useful role for the L1 in helping learners gain the knowledge needed to reach a higher level of L2 performance. Whenever a teacher feels that a meaning based L2 task might be beyond the capabilities of the learners, a small amount of L1 discussion can help overcome some of the obstacles. First language use and language focused learning There are numerous ways of conveying the meaning of an unknown word. These include a definition in the second language, a demonstration, a picture or a diagram, a real object, L2 context clues, or an L1 translation. In terms of the accuracy of conveying meaning, none of these ways is intrinsically better than any of the others. It all depends on the particular word concerned. However, studies comparing the effectiveness of various methods for learning always come up with the result that an L1 translation is the most effective (Lado, Baldwin and Lobo 1967; Mishima 1967; Laufer and Shmueli 1997). This is probably because L1 translations are usually clear, short and familiar, qualities which are very important in effective definitions (McKeown 1993). When the use of an L1 translation is combined with the use of word cards for the initial learning of vocabulary, then learners have a very effective strategy for speeding up vocabulary growth (Nation 2001: 296-316). Although there are frequent criticisms raised of learning L1-L2 word pairs, these criticisms are not supported by research. The research shows the opposite, the direct learning of L2 vocabulary using word cards with their L1 translations is a very effective method of learning. This finding also receives some support from studies of dictionary use. Learners' dictionaries can be classified into two major types - those that only use the L2 (monolingual dictionaries like the Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, the COBUILD Dictionary, the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English and the Cambridge Learners Dictionary), and those that make use of the L1 (bilingual or bilingualised dictionaries). A bilingualised dictionary is a monolingual dictionary with L1 translations included. Monolingual dictionaries usually contain a wealth of useful information and in an attempt to make them accessible for lower proficiency learners, the definitions are often within a controlled vocabulary. The definition vocabulary usually consists of around 2000 words. Thus to use a monolingual dictionary effectively learners need to have a effective receptive vocabulary of 2000 words. Most learners of English as a foreign language do not achieve this until they have been studying English for five to six years. It is not surprising then that surveys of dictionary preference (Laufer and Kimmel 1997; Atkins and Varantola 1997) and learner use (Baxter 1980) show that learners strongly favour bilingual or bilingualised dictionaries. To effectively use a monolingual dictionary, learners need to have a large enough vocabulary (at least 2000 words) and need to be able to interpret definitions, which are much more difficult than L1 synonyms. Increasingly, languages borrow a lot of words from English. Daulton (1998) for example estimates that about half of the most common 3000 words of English have some borrowed form in Japanese. Sometimes the borrowing has resulted in so many formal and semantic changes that the relationship to English is hard to see (wan-piisu - a one piece dress), but most often the relationship is clear (waasuto - worst). Encouraging learners to notice this borrowing and to use the loan words to help the learning of English is a very effective vocabulary expansion strategy. This involves deliberately exploring L1 and L2 relationships. Even greater help is available where the L1 has a family relationship with English as is the case with languages like Spanish and Swedish (Ringbom 1987). The L1 clearly has a very important role to play in the deliberate learning of vocabulary. First language use and fluency development Fluency development tasks need to involve language items that are already familiar to the learners, need to involve largely familiar content, and need to include some kind of encouragement to perform faster than usual. This encouragement can take the form of time pressure as in speed reading or the 4/3/2 activity. The L1 can have a small role to play in preparing the learners for such tasks to make sure that the material they are working with is truly familiar. This preparation can involve helping learners recall L1 stories and information that they then work with in the L2, or getting learners to use the L1 to discuss and become very familiar with L2 input, such as newspaper articles, TV news reports, short factual texts, that is then used as the basis for L2 fluency tasks. L1 and L2 In most of the roles of the L1 that we have looked at, there is the common theme that the L1 provides a familiar and effective way of quickly getting to grips with the meaning and content of what needs to be used in the L2. It is foolish to arbitrarily exclude this proven and efficient means of communicating meaning. To do so would be directly parallel to saying that pictures or real objects should not be used in the L2 class (Nation 1978). All the arguments against L1 use similarly apply to the use of pictures, real objects, and demonstration. The L1 needs to be seen as a useful tool that like other tools should be used where needed but should not be over-used. Let us now conclude by looking at ways of avoiding over-use of the L1 and encouraging L2 use. Encouraging L2 use In classes where learners all share the same first language or national language, teachers need to use a range of options to encourage learners to use the L2 as much as possible (Nation 1997). The following range of options is based on the idea that there are several reasons why learners use the L1 when they should be using the L2. These reasons include low proficiency in the L2, the naturalness of using the L2 to do certain jobs, shyness in using the L2, or simply a lack of interest in learning the L2. Here are some of the ways of dealing with these obstacles to L2 use. 1. Choose manageable tasks that are within the learners' proficiency. 2. Prepare learners for tasks by preteaching the language items and skills needed. 3. Use staged and graded tasks that bring learners up to the level required. 4. Get learners to pretend to be English speakers. 5. Make the L2 an unavoidable part of the task. Retelling activities, strip stories, completion activities, and role plays all require the use of the L2. 6. Repeat tasks to make them easier. 7. Inform learners of the learning goals of each task so that they can see how using the L2 will help them achieve a clear short term learning goal. 8. Discuss with the learners the value of using the L2 in class. 9. Get learners to discuss the reasons why they avoid using the L2 and get them to suggest solutions to encourage L2 use. 10. Set up a monitoring system to remind learners to use the L2. In group work speaking tasks this can involve giving one learner in each group the role of reminding others to use the L2. 11. Use non-threatening tasks. Learners can choose their own groups, the teacher can stay out of the groups, allow learners to prepare well for the tasks, don't use tasks that put learners in embarrassing situations, and choose interesting, non-threatening topics. If encouraging L2 use is a problem, several of these different solutions may need to be used. These solutions cover a range of affective, cognitive, and resource approaches and thus can be seen as complementary rather than as alternatives. In some countries, English and the L1 are in competition with each other and the use of English increases at the expense of the L1. Teachers need to show respect for the learners' L1 and need to avoid doing things that make the L1 seem inferior to English. At the same time, it is the English teacher's job to help learners develop their proficiency in English. Thus, a balanced approach is needed which sees a role for the L1 but also recognises the importance of maximising L2 use in the classroom. References Atkins, B.T.S. and Varantola, K. 1997. Monitoring dictionary use. International Journal of Lexicography 10, 1: 1-45. Baxter, J. 1980. The dictionary and vocabulary behaviour: a single word or a handful? TESOL Quarterly 14, 3: 325-336. Daulton, F.E. 1998. Japanese loanword cognates and the acquisition of English vocabulary. The Language Teacher 22, 1: 17-25. Knight, T. 1996. Learning vocabulary through shared speaking tasks. The Language Teacher 20, 1: 24-29. Lado, R., Baldwin, B. and Lobo, F. 1967. Massive vocabulary expansion in a foreign language beyond the basic course: the effects of stimuli, timing and order of presentation. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C.: 5-1095. Lameta-Tufuga, E. 1994. Using the Samoan Language for Academic Learning Tasks. Unpublished MA thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. Laufer, B. and Kimmel, M. 1997. Bilingualised dictionaries: How learners really use them. System 25, 3: 361-369. Laufer, B. and Shmueli, K. 1997. Memorizing new words: Does teaching have anything to do with it? RELC Journal 28, 1: 89-108. McKeown, M.G. 1993. Creating effective definitions for young word learners. Reading Research Quarterly 28, 1: 17-31. Mishima, T. 1967. An experiment comparing five modalities of conveying meaning for the teaching of foreign language vocabulary. Dissertation Abstracts 27: 3030-3031A. Nation, I.S.P. 2001. Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nation, I.S.P. 1997. L1 and L2 use in the classroom: a systematic approach. TESL Reporter 30, 2: 19-27. Nation, I.S.P. 1978. Translation and the teaching of meaning: some techniques. ELT Journal 32, 3: 171-175. Ringbom, H. 1987. The Role of the First Language in Foreign Language Learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.